The Winnipeg Free Press recently published a series of articles by Jeff Hamilton entitled ‘A Stain on Our Game’, an investigation into convicted serial sex offender and former hockey coach Graham James. This series explores the lasting impact of his years of abuse on the Canadian hockey community and more importantly, on those who were victimized by him. Hamilton’s research shed a light on the factors that allowed the widespread abuse to occur, the lifelong impacts on the survivors of James’ abuse, and what sport organizations across Canada have done and must continue to do to prevent maltreatment and abuse from occurring in sport moving forward.

Lessons Learned:

Understanding and Defining Abuse & Maltreatment

The Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport’s Universal Code of Conduct (2019) defines maltreatment as, “Volitional acts that result in harm or the potential for physical or psychological harm”. When maltreatment occurs repeatedly over time, a pattern of abuse is formed. Abuse can be psychological, physical, or sexual, but psychological abuse is the most widespread and at the root of any and all other types of abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Any type of maltreatment or abuse is rooted in an imbalance of power.

As Hamilton clearly detailed, Graham James groomed young players, who often came from vulnerable or challenging family circumstances, and wielded power over them by isolating them from their peers, using the hypermasculine culture of hockey to disempower them to speak out, and using his influence to control the future of their hockey careers. Further, a win-at-all-costs mentality and the success of James’ teams meant that those who wanted to speak out feared they would not be believed or that they would face backlash. When Darren McLean, Rick Girard, and other veteran players spoke to team management about the abuse their teammates were experiencing, McLean was instead the one punished and asked to leave the team, while James was allowed to continue coaching and abusing his players (Hamilton, 2020).

Emotional Maltreatment is Equally Harmful and More Prevalent Than Other Forms

While many survivors detailed the grooming and sexual abuse they experienced, weaved throughout their and others’ accounts was a clear pattern of emotional maltreatment and abuse. Emotional maltreatment and psychological abuse is the most common type of maltreatment experienced by young athletes, and can have equally devastating impacts as other forms of abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Psychological abuse, in comparison to physical or sexual abuse, is most strongly associated with athletes experiencing post-traumatic and dissociative symptoms (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, psychologically abusive coaching practices can both hide and lead to grooming behaviours and sexual abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

Hazing is a Longstanding Problem in Hockey with Serious, Lasting Impacts

Hazing in hockey is a longstanding problem and is currently an issue before the courts, with several former Canadian Hockey League players leading a class-action lawsuit against the CHL and its three member organizations, the WHL, OHL, and QMJHL (Hamilton, 2020). At the core of this lawsuit is the claim that the organizations have perpetuated a ‘toxic environment’ in which widespread abuse and maltreatment, from both adults and peers, is widespread and accepted (Hamilton, 2020).

Hazing is defined as any harmful interaction that involves some component of psychological, sexual, and/or physical abuse (Jeckell et al., 2018). The willingness of the victim to participate has no bearing on whether an activity can be considered hazing or not; if there is any component of harm for the victim, the activity can be considered hazing (Jeckell et al., 2018). Hazing activities have the potential to lead to extremely dangerous physical and psychological outcomes, including death (Jeckell et al., 2018). Though hazing is often viewed as ‘harmless’ and ‘team-building’, it instead has the opposite effect, reinforcing existing power structures and hierarchy amongst team members, creating more division and a lack of unity (Jeckell et al., 2018).

The Effects of Trauma are Widespread and Long-Term

Many survivors of abuse can and do go on to experience positive mental health and well-being, return to sport, and resume their regular lives and activities (Mountjoy et al., 2016). However, as Hamilton (2020) clearly showed through his interviews, the short- and long-term impacts of abuse in sport can be extremely damaging to athletes, extending beyond sport and the athletes themselves to affect their families, friends, and other areas of their lives, long after the athlete has left the sport (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Athletes suffer many opportunity costs within sport, including the loss of sponsorship, poor performance, reduced chances to win at high levels, willingness to engage in doping or cheating, or leaving sport altogether (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Outside of sport, the impacts include (but are not limited to) psychosomatic illnesses, disordered eating, low self-esteem, poor body image, anxiety, depression, substance misuse, self-harm, and suicide (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, the risk of self-harm, suicidal thoughts or attempts, or completed suicide is increased with each type of abuse that a young person experiences (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

Parents Are Essential Stakeholders in Keeping Young Athletes Safe & Sport Organizations Accountable

Parents are their children’s first and most important advocates and are powerful stakeholders in sport culture. Parents are in an important position as bystanders to call attention to inappropriate behaviour and to step in when maltreatment occurs. Parents, as much as other adults involved in sport organizations, should also receive the education and tools to recognize and address bullying, abuse, harassment, and discrimination, or BAHD behaviours. Further, parents are an important stakeholder within sport organizations to call for culture change, moving away from a focus on developing the few elite-level athletes and towards developing all young athletes as both better players and humans (Hamilton, 2020).

Education is Crucial for Empowering Bystanders to Address Incidents of Maltreatment

Organizational and cultural change starts with leadership. The first step in the process of systemic culture change is to be aware of and understand that maltreatment and abuse occurs everywhere, including in sporting organizations, and that the consequences are serious and long-lasting (Mountjoy et al., 2016). A key building block in this process is education at all levels of sport organizations (Mountjoy et al., 2016). According to Mountjoy et al. (2016), “Prevention begins with awareness-raising about non-accidental violence through the dissemination of evidence-based education and training programs.”

Bystanders are in a crucial position to disrupt patterns of maltreatment and abuse in sport environments. Further, if they do not intervene, they become part of the problem; when bystanders who witness or are aware of the abusive behaviour do nothing, either through acceptance of the behaviour, non-intervention, denial or silence, athletes believe that the behaviour is acceptable and that they would be powerless if they chose to speak out (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Bystanders can be anyone involved in a sport organization, including athletes. In fact, educating youth involved in sports from a young age on the difference between acceptable and unacceptable behaviours can help them to recognize when maltreatment is occurring and empower them to stand up for themselves and their peers.

Resources

More information about supporting individuals who are experiencing or have experienced abuse can be found below:

Sport-Specific Resources:

• The Canadian Sport Helpline supports victims and witnesses of maltreatment in sport to report their concerns and plan their next steps. The Helpline is available 7 days a week from 8:00 am-8:00pm EST by phone or text: 1-888-837-7678 or by email: info@abuse-free-sport.ca
• Any suspected child sexual abuse or misconduct occurring online can be reported to Cybertip.ca
• The Canadian Centre for Child Protection has resources and information for reporting suspected child abuse
• Commit To Kids, a program from the Canadian Centre for Child Protection, has created helpful infographics to understand the process of reporting abuse and misconduct:
  • Steps for Reporting Child Sexual Abuse (for sport organizations)
  • Steps for Reporting Inappropriate Conduct (for sport organizations)
  • Reporting Child Sexual Abuse and Misconduct (for parents)
• The Coaching Association of Canada has also created Resources for Parents to better understand safety in sport, including the responsibilities of your sports organization and of individual coaches

Mental Health & Maltreatment Resources:

• A full list of resources available in each province and territory for survivors of abuse can be found on the Ending Violence Association of Canada’s website
• Free mental health support is currently available across Canada through the Wellness Together Canada website
• For immediate crisis support, adults can text WELLNESS to 741741 and youth can text WELLNESS to 686868
• The Canadian Centre for Victims of Crime has a helpful list of resources for individuals who have experienced maltreatment and are in need of support

Prevention Resources

The first step towards prevention is education. Learn more about our online programs here:

• Educating the parents: Respect in Sport for Parent program

The Respect in Sport Parent Program provides parents with the tools to create and maintain Safe Sport environments.

• Educating the Activity Leaders: Respect in Sport for Activity Leaders program

The Respect in Sport Activity Leader educates youth leaders, coaches, officials and participants (14-years and up) to recognize, understand and respond to issues of bullying, abuse, harassment and discrimination (BAHD).

• Educating our youth: Stay in the Game program

The Stay in the Game program is designed to educate youth 10 -14 years old on three key themes; finding your voice, staying safe and having fun.

Tools, tips and research summaries to discover:

• Empowering the bystander 101: tools for Action in Sport, Schools and the Workplaces
• International Olympic Committee consensus statement: harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport
• An Overview of ‘The Spectrum of Hazing & Peer Sexual Abuse in Sports: A Current Perspective’

References:

Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport. (2019). Universal Code of Conduct to Prevent and Address
Maltreatment in Sport. Retrieved from
https://mcusercontent.com/95de45c23ac490c5d391e924f/files/7cc4ba0b-7565-43bf-aa4c-
c5be146e7d97/UCCMS_v5.1_FINAL_Eng.pdf

Hamilton, J. (2020, December). A stain on our game: The life and destructive legacy of Graham James. Winnipeg Free Press. Retrieved from https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/special/graham-james/

Jeckell, A. S., Copenhaver, E. A., & Diamond, A. B. (2018). The spectrum of hazing and peer sexual abuse in sports: A current perspective. Sports health, 10(6), 558-564.

Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Arrington, M., Blauwet, C., Carska-Sheppard, A., Fasting, K., … & Starr, K. (2016). International Olympic Committee consensus statement: harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1019-1029.

Introduction & Definition

A common rite of passage among many team sports is the initiation of new team members through, at best, bonding activities, and at worst, through a variety of activities that are considered hazing. Hazing can be defined as, “Any act against someone joining or maintaining membership to any organization that is humiliating, intimidating, or demeaning and endangers the health and/or safety of those involved” (Jeckell, Copenhaver, & Diamond, 2018). In other words, hazing is any harmful interaction that involves some component of psychological, sexual, and/or physical abuse (Jeckell et al., 2018). The willingness of the victim to participate has no bearing on whether an activity can be considered hazing or not; if there is any component of harm for the victim, the activity can be considered hazing (Jeckell et al., 2018). Hazing activities have the potential to lead to extremely dangerous physical and psychological outcomes, including death (Jeckell et al., 2018).

It is important to differentiate bullying from hazing; bullying has a goal of alienation, while hazing has a goal of initiation (Jeckell et al., 2018). Further, hazing has historically been considered a ‘team-building’ activity, so it is important to define hazing separately from team building. As defined by the National College Athletics Association (NCAA), team building activities are shared positive events that promote the values of respect, dignity, equality, and teamwork amongst teammates (Jeckell et al., 2018). The aim of team building activities is to build cohesion amongst new and existing team members, and power is evenly distributed amongst all involved (Jeckell et al., 2018). Hazing activities are characterized by negative events and an imbalance of power; existing team members hold power over new team members, who must prove themselves worthy of their place on the team and, in turn, earn the respect and dignity of their teammates (Jeckell et al., 2018). To access the graphic, click here.

Hazing is an Issue of Power

Hazing serves to reinforce a power structure where existing members of the team are able to grant or reject team membership to new members based on their ability to endure humiliating, degrading, or otherwise harmful activities (Jeckell et al., 2018). This is typically achieved through some sort of transformative hazing activity defined by a ‘destruction/creation’ cycle, where the athlete’s former identity is ‘destroyed’ and re-created to fit a new mold that is defined and accepted by the team (Jeckell et al., 2018). These destructive activities are ultimately a test of new team members to demonstrate how far they will go to be accepted as members of the team (Jeckell et al., 2018). Hazing activities all involve some level of dominance on the part of the hazer, forcing victims to experience pain, humiliation, and/or danger while demonstrating obedience and willingness to comply (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Many athletes report that they do not truly feel like members of the team until some sort of initiation activity has occurred (Jeckell et al., 2018). As such, many athletes participate in hazing in order to prove their dedication to the team, with an aim to achieve acceptance and respect (Jeckell et al., 2018). However, rather than building team cohesion, this reinforces the existing power structure and hierarchy amongst team members, creating more division and a lack of unity (Jeckell et al., 2018). Hazing always enforces an imbalanced power structure, with hazers at the top and hazees on the bottom (Jeckell et al., 2018). This ultimately keeps members divided by their various statuses (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Hazing & Sexual Misconduct by the Numbers

Jeckell et al. (2018) report that in the United States, the following groups experienced hazing:

• 47% of high schools student-athletes
• 25% report experiencing their first incident of hazing before age 13
• 34% of students performing in the arts or band
• 20% of students in other student groups
• 55% of college students who participated in clubs, teams, or other organizations (ex. fraternities or sororities)
• 80% of NCAA athletes
• 42% experienced hazing in high school

While estimates vary, between 2-48% of athletes experience some kind of sexual maltreatment/misconduct in sport (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Sensitive/Vulnerable Periods for Athletes

Aside from hazing and peer sexual abuse, athletes who participate in individual sports are particularly vulnerable to experience abuse during the period of ‘imminent achievement’, when they are on the cup of elite status (Jeckell et al., 2018). This period of time is typically characterized by both heightened levels of stress and dependence on coaching/training staff, which can leave athletes vulnerable to abuse (Jeckell et al., 2018). With their focus on achieving elite status, pre-elite athletes may be more likely to tolerate abusive behaviours in order to achieve elite status (note: this is not to say they accept or condone the behaviour) (Jeckell et al., 2018). Other athletes who are highly vulnerable to sexual abuse are those who specialize at a younger age, especially around puberty (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Risk Factors for Hazing

Individuals who are at risk of experiencing hazing include elite athletes, children, LGBTQ+ athletes, athletes with disabilities, and athletes with a lower grade point average (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Teams who are at a higher risk of experiencing/initiating hazing typically have athletes who deny or fail to recognize the authority of the coaching staff, have unsupervised team areas or locker rooms, and have a balance of power shifted towards masculine authority (Jeckell et al., 2018). However, there is no known risk for hazing associated with any one sport or sport-specific factors, including the levels of physical contact involved or uniform coverage (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Hazing is most harmful when the intent is to marginalize individuals; for example, when hazing occurs at an inter-team level, where elite athletes (ex. Junior hockey players) haze pre-elite athletes (ex. Midget hockey players) (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Sexualized Hazing

Hazing can be considered sexualized when the harmful incident includes a verbal, non-verbal and/or physically sexualized component (Jeckell et al., 2018). Sexual abuse goes beyond hazing and involves a sexualized act that exploits or entraps the victim, occurring without their consent (Jeckell et al., 2018). When sexual abuse is perpetrated by multiple people at once (i.e. gang rape/sexual assault), abusers aim to manifest status, hostility, control, and dominance (Jeckell et al., 2018). This, in part, is why sexualized hazing and peer sexual abuse occurs in cycles, where victims then become the abusers (Jeckell et al., 2018). The victim or other participants (passive or active) may view enacting the same abuses they endured onto others as the only way to demonstrate or re-establish their own status (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Peer Sexual Abuse & Hyper/Toxic Masculinity

Peer sexual abuse, along with other forms of abuse, often stems from a need to demonstrate power and rank, in part stemming from the stereotypical expectations of athletes in Western culture to demonstrate masculinity (Jeckell et al., 2018). This is shown through many depictions of athletes in the media and popular culture, where the most masculine athletes (of any gender) are viewed as the most powerful (Jeckell et al, 2018). When peer sexual abuse and sexualized hazing occurs, the intent is to demasculinize the victim and hyper-masculinize the perpetrator (Jeckell et al., 2018).

It is important to note that hazing can occur across all genders, and sexualized hazing can also occur amongst teams of female athletes. The toxic, hypermasculine ideologies involving a need for power and dominance that exist in society are often amplified in sport and can be held by athletes of any gender, in part due to the expectations and stereotypes of athletes as strong and powerful.

Impact of Hazing & Peer Sexual Abuse

Psychological Impacts

While a study of collegiate hazing found that students who participated experienced positive benefits, including feeling like part of the team, accomplished, and stronger, the evidence overwhelmingly points to the negative short- and long-term psychological effects of hazing (Jeckell et al., 2018). Multiple studies have found that victims of hazing are more likely to develop mental illnesses and symptoms, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and eating disorders (Jeckell et al., 2018).

 Physical Impacts

Hazing has resulted in numerous injuries, deaths and suicides (Jeckell et al., 2018). Sexualized hazing and peer sexual abuse also put victims at a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted illnesses, suffering from lifelong injuries that can result in health complications, and even death (Jeckell et al., 2018)

Impacts on the Team

Research from college athletes shows that experiencing hazing led to lower levels of task cohesiveness, attraction and integration; simplified, experiencing hazing leads to lower levels of teamwork and ability to focus and build on tasks (Jeckell et al., 2018). Further, hazing was unrelated to social attraction and team cohesiveness, aside from cohesiveness around the ‘code of silence’ that plagues hazing and other abuses in sport (Jeckell et al., 2018). To access the table, click here.

What Prevents Disclosure?

Research has found that many athletes who have experienced activities that constitute hazing are unlikely or unwilling to identify these events as hazing (Jeckell et al., 2018). A survey of NCAA athletes found that while 80% of athletes reported experiencing events that are considered hazing, only 12% report being hazed (Jeckell et al., 2018). Further, between 60-90% of athletes who experienced hazing explicitly stated that they would not consider reporting the event (Jeckell et al., 2018). This also shows that hazing may be normalized as a regular part of sport culture, where these harmful activities are viewed as good for the team (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Common reasons for not reporting hazing included loyalty to teammates, being unsure of who to trust (ex. coaching staff or other authority figures) with disclosure, hazing behaviour being viewed as normal, or the perception that they willingly chose to participate in being hazed (Jeckell et al., 2018). Further, many college athletes hold positive views of hazing, are unable to recognize that it has taken place, or fear retaliation from teammates for speaking out (Jeckell et al., 2018). All of these reasons exist within and stem from a sporting culture that has created a ‘code of silence’ around abuse and harassment (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Institutions Protect Abusers & Their Own Reputations/Chances for Sporting Success

There is a trend in sports-related hazing for institutions to protect the abuser(s), often going to great lengths to cover up incidents and reports of hazing and abuse (Jeckell et al., 2018). There are many factors that contribute to this. Abusers are often senior, elite athletes who have demonstrated their ability to bring the institution success through sport, bringing the school positive attention in the general public and the media (Jeckell et al., 2018). The institution often protects the perpetrator to avoid negative media/public attention, or to ensure the immediate success or long-term future of the team (Jeckell et al., 2018). Further, for a coach, administrator, or another member of the institution to accept that hazing or abuse has occurred amongst athletes for whom they are responsible, they themselves must accept some level of responsibility (Jeckell et al., 2018). In order to protect their reputations and avoid accepting liability publicly, many institutions will deny that hazing or abuse has occurred and encourage victims to move forward without any sort of resolution or deal with the issue behind closed doors (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Victims are Blamed, Within & Outside of Sport

Widespread societal myths around sexual assault and abuse are also applied to sexualized hazing and peer sexual abuse in sport (Jeckell et al., 2018). Many mistakenly believe that ‘real rape’ only occurs outside at night, when a stranger overpowers a victim with physical force (Jeckell et al., 2018). When sexual assault or rape does occur in the context of sport (for example, in private homes, team areas, or the locker room) many view this as consensual, innocent, or occurring without harmful intent (Jeckell et al., 2018). This myth is not only inaccurate but incredibly dangerous when it comes to victims being believed when they disclose and can disrupt their efforts to seek support and justice (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Victims are also blamed depending on the level of closeness they have with their abuser, another harmful myth that creates an expectation for victims to act or behave in a certain way towards those who have harmed them (Jeckell et al., 2018). Research has shown that the closer the victim and the abuser are, the less likely other individuals, including authority figures, are to blame the abuser (Jeckell et al., 2018). It can also lead these individuals to believe the abuse/hazing was less harmful to the victim (Jeckell et al., 2018). This is especially dangerous in team sports, where athletes spend a lot of time together and develop close relationships (Jeckell et al., 2018).

The normalization of hazing in sport culture may also lead to authority figures viewing victims who report instances of hazing to be going against the team and ‘making trouble’ (Jeckell et al., 2018). Further, authority figures who view hazing as normal or even beneficial for the team may also believe the victim willingly participated in the hazing and should be punished along with the perpetrators, ignoring the imbalance of power wielded by hazers and a lack of true consent to participate from hazees (Jeckell et al., 2018).

What to Do When Hazing Occurs

The Initial Conversation/Disclosure

If an athlete discloses that they have experienced hazing or peer sexual abuse, open dialogue should be encouraged; this means using active, empathetic listening and avoiding suggestive, directing, or leading questions (Jeckell et al., 2018). The conversation should ideally occur in a confidential environment where the athlete feels safe and free to openly discuss what they have experienced (Jeckell et al., 2018). The person receiving the disclosure should not express negative feelings towards the abuser/hazer; instead, a neutral tone should be maintained and the focus should be on the victim/hazee (Jeckell et al., 2018). Most importantly, letting the victim know that you believe them, emphasizing that what they experienced is not their fault and not acceptable, and commending their courage to come forward can have a long-lasting positive impact (Jeckell et al., 2018). Each situation should be treated individually and emotional and psychological support, as well as medical services, should be offered to the victim depending on their needs (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Mandatory Reporting

Any individual with an athlete in their care or who is involved with the team in any way who is aware that abuse has occurred is obligated to report this to the appropriate authorities as soon as possible (Jeckell et al., 2018). Delayed reporting and attempts to solely handle the disclosure internally can not only amount to negligence and a breach of mandatory reporting, but may also empower the perpetrators and increase the distress and harm for the victim (Jeckell et al., 2018).

Prevention Through Education & Policy

The first step to preventing hazing is a clear, zero-tolerance policy adhered to by the governing sport organization, all team staff, coaches, and the athletes themselves (Jeckell et al., 2018). This policy should clearly define the difference between team building and hazing activities, and team staff should be trained to recognize the physical and emotional warning signs that may be associated with hazing (Jeckell et al., 2018). A clear, reliable reporting system should be recognized and understood by all athletes, team staff and the organization (Jeckell et al., 2018). Consistent and proportionate disciplinary action should be taken against hazers, both to encourage future disclosures and to help prevent repeat offenders (Jeckell et al., 2018).

References:

Jeckell, A. S., Copenhaver, E. A., & Diamond, A. B. (2018). The spectrum of hazing and peer sexual abuse in sports: A current perspective. Sports health, 10(6), 558-564.

No workplace has been immune from making necessary changes and adjustments throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. With more workplaces moving to virtual working environments, employers and employees are communicating and working in new ways. These changes have also affected the way we define psychological safety in the workplace, with new types of misconduct on the rise for those who are working from home. 

Recent research reported by Bloomberg on virtual instances of bullying and harassment in the financial sector since March found an increase in hostile and offensive language used in the workplace (Martinuzzi, 2020). Though the COVID-19 pandemic is one major contributor to the recent increase in bullying and harassment in the virtual workplace, it is not the sole factor. Research following the impacts of the 2008 recession showed a significant increase in reported workplace harassment, with the incidence of harassment increasing alongside levels of financial insecurity (Martinuzzi, 2020). Strongly polarized opinions about the current political climate and views on adherence to public health measures can further contribute to stress in the workplace (Martinuzzi, 2020). 

Finding the right balance between public and private communication when working in a virtual environment is crucial. Constructive criticism and feedback should always be conducted privately between employees and their supervisors or managers, versus in group emails or communication channels. The importance of this was highlighted last year by employees of the luggage company Away. Away’s primary method of communication among employees was Slack, a widely-used messaging platform (Rice, 2020). Their company policies did not allow for private Slack messages between employees about anything work-related, resulting in employees often being publicly disciplined and even harassed by their superiors, including the company’s CEO (Rice, 2020). Further, because this all occurred online, evidence was readily available for employees to document the misconduct that occurred (Rice, 2020). Alternatively, virtual work environments also open up the doors for individuals to be excluded or cyberbullied in private conversations, emails, or video chats in ways that may not have occurred in physical workspaces, where bystanders are present (Martinuzzi, 2020). 

The blurring of the lines between work and home environments, particularly for working parents, has been a further challenge to navigate. Expectations for a typical workday, including physical appearance, workspace, and working hours are changing. If employers are transitioning to working from home, it is important to communicate individually with employees about their planned working hours, recognizing that adjustments may need to be made based on individual circumstances (Rice, 2020). Having a clearly defined work day can help prevent employees from feeling the need to always be available, and can promote psychological well-being for those new to working from home by helping to identify work/life balance and boundaries. If video meetings are required, employers should clearly identify expectations and requirements for employees’ home offices and physical appearance, and help to identify solutions for employees facing challenges in these areas (Rice, 2020). For example, meetings with colleagues in comfy clothes may be appropriate, but may not be appropriate for meetings with clients. Clarifying these expectations for all employees is not only a preventative measure, but can help to maintain a sense of normalcy during a time of great uncertainty and confusion. 

In order to maintain employee engagement, trust in the organization, and commitment to their work, employers must take virtual harassment seriously and work to create a culture that prevents maltreatment in the workplace (Rice, 2020). Creating a healthy virtual/work from home culture starts with strong leadership, fuelled by empathy and compassion for the challenges faced by both our employers and colleagues (Rice, 2020). Employers should clearly define expectations for virtual conduct in the workplace for all employees, while also working with employees individually to support their adjustment to working from home and to address any challenges or missteps that may occur. 

Employers and employees looking for more information on mental health resources available across Canada can be found through the Covid-19 Resource Hub from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). More information on creating psychologically-safe workplaces can be found in our Respect in the Workplace program. 

References:

Martinuzzi, E. (2020, June 17). As work has moved home, so has harassment. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-06-17/as-work-has-moved-home-so-has-online-bullying-harassment

Rice, D. (2020, September 14). Virtual harassment in the workplace: How bullying and misconduct moves online. HR Exchange Network. https://www.hrexchangenetwork.com/employee-engagement/articles/virtual-harassment-in-the-workplace-how-bullying-and-misconduct-moves-online 

Cyberbullying is a complex problem without a simple solution, and knowing where and how to seek help can be challenging. Dark Cloud, a Telus Originals documentary from filmmakers Holly Dupej and Matthew Embry, tells the stories of those who have experienced cyberbullying and those who advocate for hope. Guided by the work and experiences of Carol Todd, in honour of her daughter Amanda, Dark Cloud brings together the expertise of those who research cyberbullying with those who have experienced it firsthand to examine the harms associated with cyberbullying and strategies for prevention.

Cyberbullying is widespread and experienced by many. Dark Cloud reports that 60% of Canadian youth have witnessed some form of cyberbullying in the last month, while over 1 million youth experienced cyberbullying firsthand. Further, according to Statistics Canada, 41% of youth who have experienced cyberbullying reported an emotional, psychological, or mental health condition (Hango, 2016). Unlike bullying that occurs in-person, cyberbullying can follow a victim throughout their daily life, with the potential to be widely seen and shared. 

The emerging message of Dark Cloud is one of hope and leadership. When adults model kindness and respect, young people learn to become kind and respectful to their peers. When young people step in and support one another in standing against bullying, victims learn that they are not alone. Dark Cloud can be viewed here in English and here in French, and more information and resources on preventing cyberbullying can be found through the organizations below:

• Dark Cloud’s Tools & Tips for Taking Action
• Resources for parents, teachers, and students on how to support youth experiencing cyberbullying
• Amanda Todd Legacy Society
• Rise Against Bullying
• PREVNet, Promoting Relationships and Eliminating Violence Network
• Media Smarts, Canada’s centre for digital and media literacy 

Reference:

Hango, D. W. (2016). Cyberbullying and cyberstalking among Internet users aged 15 to 29 in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada.

Introduction/Background

The nature of sport and athleticism means that there is always a risk of accidents, injury, and harm. Sports organizations, from the leadership to the grassroots levels, have a moral and legal obligation to keep their athletes safe and free from harm. While accidental injury is widely recognized and addressed by most sport organizations, non-accidental violence and maltreatment from abuse, harassment, and other harmful behaviours are at best, less well recognized, and at worst, ignored or denied altogether (Mountjoy et al., 2016). All athletes, of any age, have the right to engage in sport in safe, supportive environments.

These problems are not specific to sport and can be found elsewhere in other areas of society, including the workplace, schools, and other institutions. However, the root of the problem within the culture of sport can be found in the many power differentials, particularly between adults and youth/children, between athletes, or between athletes and sport organizations, that can make it challenging for athletes to stand up for themselves and assert their rights (Mountjoy et al., 2016). The risks unique to sport include the nature of coach-athlete relationships; the ways in which athletes are recruited; the risks when minor elite athletes are relocated to far away teams, away from their support systems; practices that measure physical/biological readings; training at multiple locations/times; and hazing practices (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Conceptual Model of Harassment/Abuse in Sport

The model below, created by Mountjoy et al. (2016) provides an overview of how the cultural context of sport can contribute to abuse, including the potential impacts for both athletes and organizations. 

Psychological Abuse

All types of abuse are rooted in psychological abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Psychological abuse reported by athletes includes (but is not limited to) humiliation, belittlement, yelling, scapegoating, rejection, isolation, threatening behaviours, ignoring behaviours, and denial of attention or support (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, psychologically abusive coaching practices can both hide and lead to grooming behaviours and sexual abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Sexual Abuse

While sexual abuse can and often does occur from individuals in positions of power and authority, sexual harassment is far more likely to occur between athletes and their peers (Mountjoy et al., 2016). This behaviour can be learned by athletes in sports cultures that accept or even encourage this type of behaviour (Mountjoy et al., 2016). The risk of sexual abuse is greater when athletes are not protected (ex. through safe sport policies, codes of conduct, etc.), when the abuser is highly motivated to harm a young person, and when the athlete is highly vulnerable, particularly through age and maturation (Mountjoy et al., 2016). The type of sport, type of clothing worn, and physical touching are not considered risk factors for sexual abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

Bullying & Hazing

Bullying occurs in the context of a power imbalance, where one individual has the desire to harm another by asserting their dominance (Mountjoy et al., 2016). This differs from hazing, which can be viewed as a ‘rite of passage’ for new members of a team to be accepted by existing team members, also by asserting their dominance (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Research has shown that sport cultures that haze can be toxic for young athletes, and are characterized by misogyny, homophobia, exclusionary behaviour, misconduct, discrimination, lack of mutual respect, and secrecy around these behaviours and attitudes (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Athletes at the Highest Risk

The risk of experiencing violence (psychological, physical, and/or sexual) increases as athletes progress towards more elite levels of sport (Mountjoy et al., 2016). In addition, athletes who are LGBTQ+ or who have disabilities are more likely to experience sexual abuse (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Research has shown the risk of experiencing any type of abuse is two to three times higher for athletes with disabilities compared to other athletes (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, the first large scale study of homophobia in sport found that 80% of athletes surveyed had witnessed or experienced homophobia (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Disclosure

There are many reasons athletes don’t disclose the abusive behaviours they are experiencing, including power differentials and feelings of powerlessness, fear of the perpetrator, isolation, silencing, a lack of bystander intervention, and organizational denial (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

The power differential between athletes and coaches is shown through the delay of disclosure, or lack of disclosure, around abusive coaching practices. The normalization of psychologically abusive coaching practices creates a persistent bystander effect; in turn, this can prevent athletes from disclosing the abusive behaviour and seeking help (Mountjoy et al., 2016). When the bystanders who witness or are aware of the abusive behaviour do nothing, either through acceptance of the behaviour, non-intervention, denial or silence, athletes believe that the behaviour is acceptable and that they would be powerless if they chose to speak out (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, given the competitive nature of sport, athletes may feel that they cannot say anything to maintain their place on the team or to not be singled out by their sport organization/team (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

Impact of Abuse

Many survivors of abuse can and do go on to experience positive mental health and well-being, return to sport, and resume their normal lives and activities (Mountjoy et al., 2016). However, the short- and long-term impacts of abuse in sport can be extremely damaging to athletes and extends beyond sport and the athletes themselves to affect their families, friends, and other areas of their lives, long after the athlete has left the sport (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Athletes suffer many opportunity costs within sport, including the loss of sponsorship, poor performance, reduced chances to win at high levels, willingness to engage in doping or cheating, or leaving sport altogether (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Outside of sport, the impacts include psychosomatic illnesses, disordered eating, low self-esteem, poor body image, anxiety, depression, substance misuse, self-harm, and suicide (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

Psychological abuse, in comparison to physical or sexual abuse, is most strongly associated with athletes experiencing post-traumatic and dissociative symptoms (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, the risk of self-harm, suicidal thoughts or attempts, or completed suicide is increased with each type of abuse that a young person experiences (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Abuse & Harassment is a Systemic Issue

Sexual abuse and harassment in sport can be considered a symptom of failed leadership (Mountjoy et al., 2016). When power is abused by leadership, or an organizational culture ignores, denies, fails to prevent or cannot accept that the problem exists, the individuals in power have failed those they were supposed to protect (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, the ‘win at all cost’ nature of sport and the idolization of athletes contributes to the acceptance or normalization of violence and abuse in sport, particularly in contact sports (Mountjoy et al., 2016). When athletes are viewed as ‘assets’ or athletes first by sport organizations, instead of children and youth with rights and needs, there is a higher risk of creating a culture where their individual needs and rights are neglected (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Aside from the ethical and legal obligations to prevent abuse in sport, the health and success of sport organizations is improved when these preventative measures are in place. The economic and opportunity costs related to abuse in sport are significant and can include reputational damage; depletion of the talent pool when elite athletes leave sport; termination of sponsorships/contracts; and the undermining of confidence and trust in the organization (Mountjoy et al., 2016).

Abuse & Harassment Prevention Requires Culture Change Through Systemic Solutions

Organizational and cultural change starts with leadership. Leaders who ignore, deny, or resist believing that abuse and harassment happen in sport deny the organization and those within it the opportunity to work towards prevention and mitigation of risk, ultimately creating a culture where athletes are at risk (Mountjoy et al., 2016). This denial and abuse of power allows the underlying causes of abuse and harassment to persist and allows abusive behaviours and unsafe practices to continue (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

The first step in the process of systemic culture change is to be aware of and understand that these behaviours exist and that the consequences are serious and long-lasting (Mountjoy et al., 2016). A key building block in this process is education at all levels of sport organizations (Mountjoy et al., 2016). According to Mountjoy et al. (2016), “Prevention begins with awareness-raising about non-accidental violence through the dissemination of evidence-based education and training programs.” This is a crucial step to equip stakeholders with the knowledge and understanding to both create preventative solutions and to overcome denial (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Further, this can help prevent the pervasive bystander effect, and equip bystanders with the knowledge and tools to address abusive behaviours when they see or suspect it to be occurring.

Sport organizations should take the lead of other youth-serving organizations and institutions, as well as the legal mandates in their area for reporting of abuse and harassment, to create safe sport policies that align with current best practices (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Training for individuals with young athletes in their care to recognize the signs of distress and mental health concerns are crucial in preventing long-term mental health impacts and preventing self-harm and suicide (Mountjoy et al., 2016). Allegations of abuse and harassment should be handled by individuals with the appropriate training and qualifications, as opposed to internal investigations by sport leaders who lack this expertise (Mountjoy et al., 2016). If allegations of violence/abuse occur, it is necessary to involve law enforcement as soon as possible (Mountjoy et al., 2016). External reporting structures should also be implemented so that allegations of abuse and harassment are thoroughly investigated both internally and externally (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

Further culture change can be created through the restructuring of safe sport programs that address the social context of abuse and harassment (Mountjoy et al., 2016) This includes clear policies and codes of conduct; background screening and systematic recruitment; continued education and training; processes for complaints and support; and continued monitoring and evaluation of safe sport practices (Mountjoy et al., 2016). 

References: Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Arrington, M., Blauwet, C., Carska-Sheppard, A., Fasting, K., … & Starr, K. (2016). International Olympic Committee consensus statement: harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1019-1029.